DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS IN POLITICAL ISLAM

Matt White

October 28, 2015

Liberty University - PPOG 640 – Middle East Laws and Policy

Central to the Muslim faith is the tenet that Islam is an all-encompassing worldview, with the religious authorities: the Qur’an, Hadith, and religious scholars, defining a comprehensive road map that guides all aspects of life. Political Islam, or Islamism, is the political manifestation of the belief that since the Islamic religion offers complete panoptic guidance, Islam is inseparable from the state. Political Islam is the science of ingratiating the composition and actions of the state with the wisdom, morality and law prescribed by the religion, in the context of the modern world and contemporary needs.  As in any system of government, there is no universal agreement, and views range across the spectrum concerning the structure of Islamist governments and the nature of the church-state relationship in practice.[1] Political Islam has been a force throughout the Middle East since the founding of the religion, but has arisen to the global consciousness in recent years through the rise of global Islamic terrorism, the turmoil of the Arab Spring and the overthrow of secular governments in place of Islamic political systems of government, and the emergence of the Islamic State. In order to better understand the mindset and goals of modern political Islam, several terms and definitions will be discussed.

Terms and Definitions

            As in other faiths, Islamic beliefs differ across a variety of sects and denominations. However, fundamentally universal to the Muslim faith are the Qur’an and the Sunnah. The Qur’an is the central authoritative text for all Muslims. Through the angel Gabriel, Allah revealed his words, in the Arabic language, to the prophet Muhammad. Illiterate, Muhammad recited the exact words of Allah, which were then transcribed. Thus, the Qur’an is the literal word of Allah, and the Arabic language is the language of God. Muslims see the Qur’an as a continuance of the Old and New Testaments, which had been corrupted from their original Arabic language divine dictums.[2] Structurally, the Qur’an consists of 114 chapters or surah, arranged by length, with a cumulative 6,200 verses, 500 of which concern legal principles.[3]

            Hadith literature contains Sunnah, which are the actions and statements of Muhammad that were recorded by his followers.[4] Muslims do not worship Muhammad, but believe that he lived his life according to the revelation of Allah as an example of all of the divine laws that govern daily life, ranging from diet and hygiene, to statesmanship, governance and warfare.[5] Though both Sunnis and Shi’i accept the Qur’an and the Sunnah, they differ in their criteria for judging the trustworthiness, reliability and authority for evaluating and accepting various hadith and Sunnah as doctrine.[6] Shari’a is Islamic law, consisting of the law established through both the Qur’an and Sunnah. As given directly from Allah, Shari’a is considered to be flawless and eternal.[7]

In Islamic political systems, varying roles play a part in the interconnected relationship between church and state. A qadi is a judge and administrator of a political jurisdiction, who presides over trials, examines facts, applies the law, and issues verdicts. Qadis often perform administrative roles outside of the judiciary, and also adjudicate disputes that are not completely covered by, but not in contradiction to Shari’a. Qadis are appointed for their jurisprudence and understanding of law, though are not always experts in Shari’a. A mufti is an Islamic religious scholar that issues fatwas, or legal opinions grounded in Shari’a, in assistance to the qadi. In Islamic political systems, qadis and muftis work in concert in the practice of public policy, as qadi legal verdicts are often guided by mufti opinion and past fatwas. [8]

            The simplistic explanation of the differences between the two major divisions of Islam, Sunni and Shi’a, is that the sects split over a disagreement of who should succeed Muhammad as caliph. Muhammad died without defining a clear line of succession, so the elders appointed Abu Bakr, a pious deputy of Muhammad’s who was respected for his wisdom. Therefore Sunnis, who comprise 85% of the Muslim population, believe that rather than hereditary succession, Muhammad’s successor as leader should be the most qualified individual.[9] Shi’a is the minority branch globally, but is followed by most all Iranians and a slight majority of Iraqis, Bahrainis, and Azerbaijanis. Shi’i believe in the hereditary succession of Muhammad as the Imam, or head of the global Muslim community, passed through the lineage of Muhammad’s closest male heir, his cousin Ali, who was also the husband of Muhammad’s daughter Fatima.[10] This disagreement over who is the rightful torchbearer of Islam has been a major source of political conflict and rifts across the greater Muslim world.

Including different interpretations of some aspects of Shari’a, the divisions between Sunni and Shi’a are reflected in differing legal systems. Sunni legal theory, or Usul-i-fiq, consists of four sources: the Qur’an and hadith (Shari’a), and also ijma and ijtihad.[11] Ijtihad is the mental process used by qadis and muftis to logically apply Islamic legal principles to situations in the modern world that are not specifically covered by the Shari’a.[12] Qiyas is a form of ijtihad that uses analogy as a method of analytical reasoning[13] to apply Islamic law to situations and principles similar but not identical to those enumerated in the Shari’a. In their reasoning in interpreting the intent of a law, in a system termed maqasid, qadis and muftis evaluate law on five criteria: the ability to protect “1) life, 2) the ability to practice Islam, 3) property, 4) children, and 5) human rationality.”[14] Interpreting and broadening the applications for Shari’a mandates Islamic scholars of wisdom, intellect, and jurisprudence. Ijma, or consensus, is reached when scholars come to an agreement on a human interpretation of the Shari’a.

Fiqh is the conglomeration of the human understanding and interpretation of Shari’a. Law professor and scholar Cynthia Shawamreh noted, “The Shari’a, or God’s unknowable, divine and transcendent law, contains a just result for every imaginable situation. “Fiqh,” the human effort to determine what that result might be, will only ever be probable at best and can never be known with absolute certainty.”[15] Thus, the philosophy of maintaining Usul-i-fiq in Sunni Islam is binding with the assertion that only the best and brightest are capable successors of Muhammad.

            In Sunni Islam, an Imam is simply one who leads in prayer, and is the leader of a local mosque and local community. The definition and role of the Imam in Shi’a Islam is a point of vast divergence between the two sects. Shi’a Islam is split into multiple branches centered around disagreements on the number of legitimate Imams that succeeded Muhammad as caliph, though the majority of Shi’i are Twelvers or Ithna Ashari. Twelver doctrine recognizes twelve Imam successors, though the twelfth Imam mysteriously disappeared in 874 AD without an heir. Twelver Shi’a maintains that the twelfth Imam did not die, but is lying in “occultation” to one day return as a messianic caliph.[16] Shi’i place an Ayatollah at the head of the Shi’a community to act in lieu of the missing Imam. As with Sunni Islamic leaders, an Ayatollah is chosen by merit, wisdom, and Islamic jurisprudence.[17]

A caliphate is a Muslim state, led by a caliph, and is associated with the ideal of a pan-Islamic state. However, just the use of the title is one source of conflict and political strife between Sunnis and Shi’i. The Sunni caliph is a political head of state that governs under Shari’a and is popularly chosen based on merit.[18] In Shi’a Islam, the title of caliph can only be rightfully claimed by Muhammad’s true successor as Imam. Many established empires and kingdoms in Middle Eastern history have laid claim to be called a caliphate, and kings and sultans often used the title of caliph, but none established accepted rule over the global Muslim community, or umma. Shi’i, often a minority within their political realm, view the self-proclaimed caliphate as tantamount to heresy, in light of the Shi’a view of the one true hereditary caliph.  

            Imam Mahdi is a central figure in Muslim end-times prophecy, though Sunnis and Shi’i differ in their interpretations of the role and identity of the Mahdi. Three main individuals will appear at the End Times: Imam Mahdi, Jesus, and the Antichrist. In Shi’a doctrine, Imam Mahdi is the twelfth Imam, who will kill the Antichrist before establishing himself as caliph.[19] Sunni end-times prophecy holds that the Mahdi is a righteous Muslim, a Witness and Messenger, who will establish his rule over the global caliphate. But to Sunnis, Jesus will play a larger role as the one who slays the Antichrist.[20]

Jihad is a commonly misinterpreted and oversimplified term by Westerners, but the philosophy is a political force, influencing Middle Eastern foreign policy and attitudes towards the West, as well as a motivating factor of the actions of radicals, promulgating civilizational conflict. The concept of jihad has held varying connotations and interpretations throughout history and between varying sects, but in the most generic terms, jihad is a struggle, personal and political, internal and external, in the defense of Islam.[21] The lesser jihad can be described as the external, political or military defense of Islam. The separation between greater and lesser jihad stems from a hadith in which Muhammad is reported to say, after returning from battle, “We have returned from the lesser jihad to embark on the greater jihad.”[22] The lesser jihad did not necessarily exclude martyrdom for the cause of the greater good of Islam.[23] Politically, the lesser jihad is carried out through the foreign policy of the Islamic state through military and diplomatic activity in preserving the sovereignty of the Islamic state.[24] In domestic rule, an Islamic state can practice jihad through maintaining order and justice in society and serving the public welfare.[25] The greater and hence more important jihad is the internal struggle to maintain purity and integrity of one’s own soul. The greater jihad is the holy war against one’s own evil and base desires, to preserve the reign of Allah’s will over one’s soul.

Conclusion

Modern American public policy makers, concerned with affairs in the Middle East, should have a firm grasp of the concepts and terms of political Islam in order to effectively interact and deal with allies and adversaries. An understanding is required of the Islamic worldview and of the differences in philosophy across Islam, not limited to the conflict between the Shi’a Iranians and the Ayatollah vs. the radical Wahhabi Sunni Islamic State and the fundamental Iranian opposition to a proclaimed caliphate, as well as knowing the mindset of Sunni NATO ally Turkey. Knowing the fundamental worldview and psychological foundations of Muslim extremists is a positive first step in combating terrorism and keeping the world safe. Grasping the terms and concepts laid out here will assist in understanding the dynamics of the wider Middle Eastern world and will help facilitate prudent foreign policy and diplomacy.

References

Discovering Islam. “Shia’s Imam Mahdi.” discoveringislam.org. Last updated July 8, 2015. Accessed October 26, 2015. http://www.discoveringislam.org/shia_mahdi.htm.

Discovering Islam. “Sunni Muslims’ Al-Mahdi (Mehdi).” discoveringislam.org. Last updated July 8, 2015. Accessed October 26, 2015. http://www.discoveringislam.org/sunni_mahdi.htm.

Esposito, John L. What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.

Gelpe, Marcia. The Israeli Legal System. Durham: Carolina Academic Press, 2013.

Guidère, Mathieu. “Caliphate.” Historical Dictionary of Islamic Fundamentalism. Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2012. Accessed October 25, 2015. http://goo.gl/ksK633.

Heck, Paul L. “Jihad Revisited,” Journal of Religious Ethics 32.1 (2004): 95-128. Accessed October 23, 2015. http://goo.gl/gd2PBL.

March, Andrew F. March. “Political Islam: Theory,” Annual Rev. Polit. Sci. no. 18 (March 2015):103-123. Accessed October 23, 2015, http://goo.gl/ieUUkU.

Shawamreh, Cynthia. “Islamic Legal Theory and the Context of Islamist Movements.” Notre Dame Journal of International & Comparative Law, (2012): 197-223. Accessed October 21, 2015. http://www3.nd.edu/~intlaw/V2I2/Shawamreh.pdf.

Zubaida, Sami. Law and Power in the Islamic World. London: I.B. Tauris, 2003. Accessed October 26, 2015. http://goo.gl/Qkxqm9.